Garcia E Early childhood bilingualism. Genesee F If a one language or two? Bilingualism: and a minority language such as Welsh, is he or she beyond basic principles.
Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Welsh, English, British, European, or what? It has — Grosjean F Leaning and Verbal Behaviour 10, — Gumperz J J Discourse strategies. Cambridge: Meisel J M Hansegard N E The bilingual family. Authority in language. Haugen E Bilingualism: psycho- Muller N New York: tems simultaneously.
Two first lan- Academic Press. Dordrecht: Foris. Hummel K Language processing in bilinguals: psycholinguistic gual children. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence 18, 1— Journal of Memory and Language 33, — Romaine S Bilingualism 2nd edn. Oxford: Blackwell. Lanza E Language mixing in infant bilingualism.
Saer D J Lectures on language and linguistic meth- Experimental Psychology 6, —, — Skutnabb-Kangas T Acts of identity: tion of minorities. Creole-based approaches to language and ethnicity.
Vihman M Research on child language acquisition. Somerville, MA: Weinreich U Languages in contact: findings Cascadilla Press. Canadian Journal of Linguistics 7, 51— Phonological development MacNamara J Clevedon: guals. In uals who know and use two or more languages. Consequently, assessing their lives and use these languages at different levels and rehabilitating bilingual aphasics warrant con- of proficiency.
Bilingualism and Aphasia Bilingualism and the Brain knowledge in the neurobiology of monolingual aphasia. For example, studies suggest that perilesional In order to better understand how neurological inju- areas may be recruited in aphasia recovery Warburton ries may affect the linguistic abilities of individuals et al. If, as Kim et al. Consequently, relying on these bilinguals more so than in monolinguals, and whether perilesional areas and the less disrupted language in one hemisphere contributes mostly to only one lan- rehabilitation of these individuals might be more pro- guage Paradis, Although the issue of laterality ductive than rehabilitation of their early bilingual or has some bearing on predicting the presence or ab- even monolingual counterparts whose injury might sence of aphasia as a result of brain injury, it only have caused disruption of all language s they speak.
Recently, the precise have been proposed Green and Price, , little neuroanatomic circuits within and across cerebral evidence exists to support one rehabilitation strategy hemispheres have been considered, as have other over another in bilingual aphasia. Recent of Recovery neuroimaging studies, although involving only isola- Different types of bilingual aphasia, as well as differ- ted linguistic tasks, suggest that attained proficiency ent patterns of recovery, have been reported, involv- and the age of language acquisition may be deter- ing not only speaking and understanding speech but mining factors in whether the two languages are also reading and writing Streifler and Hofman, subserved by the same neural circuits.
Wong et al. Differential aphasia has also been reported the inferior frontal gyrus but in opposite hemispheres where different types of aphasia were shown in dif- when doing so, presumably due to their ferent languages Albert and Obler, ; Silverberg corresponding attained proficiency or lack thereof in and Gordon, — for example, conduction apha- Mandarin.
Kim et al. Late bilinguals also showed activation in the bining syllables of two languages, thus creating a new left inferior frontal gyrus, but the centers of activation word Paradis, Code switching can function to have suggested that attained proficiency might be the convey emotional content, to emphasize or clarify the most important factor in determining whether or not references being made, and to quote De Fina, , the two languages are subserved by the same neural and it is considered to be an important aspect of circuit Perani et al.
Converging evidence on brain and bilin- Heller, Patterns of code switching were also gualism is being built and shows great promise for the found to be different between bilingual aphasics and effective assessment and rehabilitation of bilingual normal individuals De Santi et al.
It has been suggested that the degree and type of Bilingual Aphasia Assessment linguistic impairments in bilingual aphasics may be When evaluating a bilingual aphasic individual, vari- specific to the structures of the language.
For exam- ous important issues warrant special considerations. Different languages have dif- production of lexical tones pitch patterns used to ferent nonoverlapping grammatical structures and contrast word meaning , a greater degree of deficit vocabulary that can potentially influence how was found in Cantonese production, possibly because thoughts are expressed; consequently, certain linguis- Cantonese contains six tonal contrasts, whereas Mandarin contains only four Lim and Douglas, tic impairments may or may not manifest themselves depending on the language, as suggested previously In Friulian—Italian bilingual aphasics, the in the Mandarin—Cantonese and Friulian—Italian most frequently made errors in Friulian but not Ital- bilingual cases.
Furthermore, languages are used ian involved the omission of the second obligatory in different social and cultural contexts, resulting in pronoun, which is a typical feature of Friulian but not context-dependent interpretations even for the same Italian Fabbro and Frau, In other words, a utterance.
Second, because bilingual aphasics use the type of linguistic impairment may not be apparent in two or more languages in different social settings, and one language because it does not occur as often or at all in that language. This also reinforces the idea of because the two or more languages can be affected and recovered differently, all languages the individ- assessing multiple languages in bilingual aphasic uals speak premorbidly need to be assessed in order to individuals because impairments in one language do gain a more complete picture of the aphasia.
Third, in not necessarily predict the same impairments in the addition to any formal measures, a thorough case other. These include tests that are originally con- recovery, when one language improves before the structed in English but then translated into other other language; or differential recovery, when one languages with considerations of the appropriate language improves more so than the other. For example, there is a recovery, namely improvement in one language but Cantonese version of the Western Aphasia Battery deterioration in another Paradis and Goldblum, In addition, there are also tests For example, Grasset version Paradis and Janjua, and a Bulgarian— French version Paradis and Parcehian, ] and reported a case of a monolingual French- the Multilingual Aphasia Examination in Chinese, speaking Catholic woman who started to speak French, German, Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish single Latin words and prayers the language of the Rey and Benton, It is worth noting that it is not known what single factor influences Rehabilitation the pattern of recovery Paradis, For example, it is not always the case that the language spoken Traditional approaches employed in aphasia rehabili- most proficiently premorbidly will be the language tation still apply to rehabilitating bilingual affected the most or the least by brain injury or the aphasic individuals, such as language stimulation ap- language that will be recovered first.
Bilingualism and aphasia: word retrieval as compensatory approaches that target the indivi- skills in a bilingual anomic aphasic. However, additional Chlenov L For example, should rehabilitation focus on aphasia in polyglots.
If one, which one? No one set De Fina A Similarly, it is still unclear whether skills ac- M ed. Aspects of bilingual aphasia. San Diego: Singular. For example, the social penal- impairments. Mitchell C The bilingual Basic knowledge of how multiple languages are is not two monolinguals in one person. Moreover, careful documentation of guage. One speaker, linguistic impairment characteristics and the course two languages. Nature tic and cultural backgrounds, due to factors such as London , — Impairment of lexical tone immigration, globalization, and state unionization, production in stroke patients with bilingual aphasia.
The clinical population as well as Linke D Thus, a greater Peuser G ed. Studien zur Sprachtherapie. Munich: basic and clinical understanding of bilingualism and Wilhelm Fink Verlag.
One speaker, two languages. The bilingual brain. New Paradis M ed. Readings on aphasia in bilinguals York: Academic Press. Montreal: Didier. Paradis M San Diego: Academic enough already! Acquired aphasia, 3rd edn. New York: bilingual individuals. Academic Press. Urdu version. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Wald I Problema afazii poliglotov. Bilingual Aphasia Test Patofiziologii Afazii. Bilingual-French version. Journal of Neurology, brain. Proficiency and age of acquisition of the second Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 66, — Examen de afasia multilingue: Neuroscience 24, — Yiu E M-L Aphasia rehabilitation: views battery.
Does sec-! And how are two or more languages represented in the brain? This chapter attempts to Introduction answer these and other questions concerning bilingual language learning and use. There is a widespread perception in monolingual societies, particularly in the United States, that bilin- Key Concepts gualism is a rare and exceptional occurrence in com- munication.
By contrast, from a global perspective, Before discussing language development among bilin- bilingualism is a world-wide phenomenon. However, childhood bi- adulthood. An additional language may be a lan- lingualism is not the only reason for adult bilingual- guage of the country or spoken outside the country ism.
A host of different factors such as marriage, i. Learning region, migration, jobs, government policies, urbani- zation, etc. A child can learn any lan- language learning different from child-language guage relatively effortlessly, while the same task learning? Is bilingual-language acquisition different becomes rather challenging for adults. For this rea- from monolingual-language acquisition? While children go through input language.
Children begin to learn to set para- the former process, adults undergo the latter in their metric values even from the one-word stage. A Japanese child learns to choose the head-final sys- tem, whereas an English-speaking child chooses the The Critical Period Hypothesis and Its Biological Basis head-initial value. In spite of the complete Input and Learning Environment: Natural vs. Similarly, it is also shown Usually children become bilinguals or multilingual in that in spite of considerable effort and motivation, the a natural way.
A normal child can become a fluent ultimate attainment of some grammatical structures bilingual by the age of five, for instance, without any by adults is seldom achieved. To explain these and formal training.
In the process of acquiring a lan- other differences in language acquisition and recovery guage, the role of input motherese, etc. This language by mindlessly imitating the input provided hypothesis claims that there is a period in the matura- by mothers or caretakers.
That is, while the role of tion of human organism, lasting from two years to parental input cannot be ruled out, language acquisi- puberty, in which nearly effortless and complete tion studies show that neither motherese nor imita- language acquisition is possible.
Since one generates the corresponding past tense form of the accent phonetics and phonology of a second the verb. The role of the adult is Children are born to acquire human languages.
In other words, the child has an innate every normal child is capable at birth of acquiring capacity to acquire languages in an environment any human language.
In this case, a child has full access to universal through a formal instructional method. The role of pa- What is bilingualism and who is bilingual?
Defining rental input then becomes to trigger an appropriate and measuring bilingualism is a very complex task value for innately given or set parameters, specific to due to the number and types of input conditions, the language to which the child is exposed.
In short, there is no this second setting, described by Bhatia and Ritchie widely-accepted definition or measures of bilinguals. If the other language to other social situations. If speaks the other.
Labels such as fluent vs. Although the discourse allocation approach vs. For instance, during ship dominance between two languages. The list is by no mothers speak in English. Other major distinctions such as simultaneous vs. Similarly, bilingualism can be viewed from individual, societal attitudes towards bilingual- Other factors such as age and amount of exposure to ism , and political i.
The distinction In general, a bilingual person demonstrates many between simultaneous and sequential bilinguals in complex attributes rarely seen in a monolingual per- research on bilingual language acquisition is based son. For that reason, a bilingual is not equivalent to on age and the degree of exposure to two languages. When the child is exposed to two languages to more This working definition of bilingualism is offered by or less the same degree from birth onward, the pat- Bloomfield , who claimed that a bilingual is tern of language development is referred to as simul- one who has a native-like control of two languages, taneous, whereas sequential bilingualism describes i.
Similarly, the term late bilingual is used for those Patterns and Mechanisms in Bilinglual sequential bilinguals who acquire their second lan- guage at a relatively younger age than adults learning Language Development a second language.
The same is also true for no consensus among scholars about the exact line of those societies where social and political systems are demarcation between the two. See McLaughlin conducive to bilingualism. For instance, in India, and De Houwer for either theoretical where bilingualism is viewed as natural, approved or methodological grounds.
In simultaneous bilingual in initial stages. After all, sharp contrast, in societies where bilingualism is not when parents provide input, they do not tag or valued or where the language of a minority is distinct, prime their input with a language identification it becomes imperative for families to plan meaningful label. Even if parents go to the absurd length of strategies to ensure the smooth exposure to the family identifying the language of each word or sentence language.
Furthermore, bilingual parents unwittingly For a more detailed treatment of the shortcomings of make the task of separating the two languages even the unitary system hypothesis and the strengths of the harder for children because of their normal tendency dual system hypothesis, see Bhatia and Ritchie to mix two languages.
In short, a child is provided — Given this state of affairs, two linguistic systems separate, but they often mix how does the child learn to separate the two lan- them either within a sentence or inter-sententially. Depending as a source of input.
The two hypotheses which at- upon the theoretical and empirical objectives of their tempt to shed light on this question are the unitary research, some researchers do not distinguish system hypothesis and the dual system hypothesis. During the first two stages, the child experi- tential mixing in bilinguals. Both bilingual children ences confusion. What explains to distinguish the two lexicons and grammars of the this behavior of language mixing? Earlier research linguistic systems. At this stage, they have a single attempted to explain it in terms of the language defi- lexicon made up of items drawn from the lexicons ciency hypothesis: it was claimed that bilinguals in of both languages.
Hence, no translational equiva- general and children in particular have language gaps. As claimed by the unitary system hypothesis the lack Volterra and Taeschner claim that their two bilingual of synonyms compels them to mix the two lexical subjects at the ages of 1 year 10 months and 1 year systems during stage I.
Similarly, stage II yields the 6 months had a hybrid list of words with no mixing of two language systems due to confusion. In translational equivalents. During the second stage, other words, the lack of proficiency in either one the child slowly learns to separate the two lexicons, language i. Cross-linguistic synonyms emerge, but the child mixing. It is only during the third stage that the child of offering deeper insights into the bilingual mixing becomes capable of separating the two sets of voca- behavior.
As it has been shown earlier in the discus- bularies and grammars. Findings of recent research sion of the dual system hypothesis, children do not go reveal that the unitary system hypothesis cannot sus- through the initial stages of treating the two linguistic tain the scrutiny of the succeeding research and the systems as if they were one system, but begin to evidence motivating the three stages of bilingual lan- distinguish them immediately. The consideration of guage development is full of shortcomings and con- optimization leads bilinguals to mix language with an tradictions both on methodological and empirical aim to get maximum mileage from the two linguistic grounds.
An analogy drawn from the The dual system hypothesis states that bilingual beverage industry further explains this point. The children, based on their access to Universal Grammar separation of juices e. However, if one mixes the capacity of separating the two grammars and lexical two juices, the result is a new taste, a distinct from the systems right from the beginning.
A wide variety of two pure juices. The same is true of bilingual lan- cross-linguistic studies e. For instance, in a study as semantic domains and semantic complexity an devoted to the language development of a Hindi- item less complex or salient in one language , stylistic English bilingual child, it is clear that at age 2, the effects, clarification, elaboration, relief strategy i.
An English- sons, such as attitudes, societal values, and personali- speaking learner of Hindi has difficulties in hearing ty, prompt bilinguals to mix two languages. The list and producing a four-way contrast between Hindi of motivations is by no means exhaustive see Bhatia aspiration and voicing contrast i. Adult Bilingualism: Second Language Learning It would be a gross simplification to claim that L2 In contrast to sequential childhood bilingualism, learners transfer all grammatical features of L1 to L2.
As pointed out earlier, unlike children who are For instance, English-speaking learners of Hindi will able to universally and uniformly acquire native com- not translate there in these sentences: petency in their mother tongue, adults rarely achieve 1. There is a chair in the room native-like competency in their second language. The chair is over there Depending on the level of their motivation and hard work, adults can learn a second language with vary- in an identical way i.
However, there comes a tive adverb in both cases. Not only does the mother tongue guage errors which no amount of training can cor- influence second language acquisition in children, it rect. For these reasons, second language L2 learning also affects their school achievement. The hypothesis which aims at Approaches to Second Language Learning accounting for these differences between the child In adult language acquisition research, the term sec- and the adult language is termed the fundamental ond language is used in a wider sense to include both difference hypothesis.
However, in the and L2 learning, one should not draw a conclusion context of language teaching the distinction between that there is nothing in common between the two. In ment levels to be attained. Take 1. Grammar-translation method: Following the tra- the case of the development of negation in English L1 dition of teaching classical languages such as and L2 learners.
The grammar of negation in L2 Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit, this method places learners of English shows the same stages of develop- emphasis on memorization and rote learning. Very little emphasis is placed on devel- Stage III: preverbal placement of negation with an oping spoken proficiency in the foreign language, appropriate auxiliary verb.
This method is per- Native Language Influence and Dominance haps the oldest method of language teaching An important way in which L2 learning is different which dates back to the 19th century. The direct method: Also known as oral or natural on second-language learning. The mother tongue or methods, it departs from the grammar-translation L1 plays an important role in the process of L2 acqui- method in three important respects: one, memori- sition.
Native language is never used ism in education. In addition to learning two national as a tool to explain either grammar or other intri- languages, Hindi and English, students are expected cacies of the target language usage. This model to learn a third language beyond their native tongue.
While bi- or multi-lingual education programs like 3. An em- bilingual education in the United States. The structural method: In order to speed up the A notable feature of the Canadian bilingual educa- acquisition of foreign languages, insights of struc- tion program is termed the language immersion pro- tural linguistics were applied to language teaching.
Introduced in the s in Quebec, the This method exposes learners to different structur- program was introduced at the request of the En- al patterns and transformation drills. Children were im- acquired through imitation. The discussion in the key mersed in schools in the second language of students concept section shows the limitation of this model. This process leads chil- the fact remains that no method has a grip on the dren from what Cummins calls basic interper- complexity involving learning a second language.
The suc- education programs. Bilingual education programs in cess of the Canadian language immersion model con- America aim at minority students learning English. A large intelligence, opportunities, and other factors, such as number of bilingual education programs in the United their attitude toward the target language and culture. States aim at subtractive bilingualism. The government of India, toward the culture of the target language. Due to a lack of self-esteem and a higher level of performance anxiety, minority children tend to raise See also: Bilingualism; Bilingual Education; Bilingual Lan- the affective filter, which results in the reduction of guage Development: Early Years; Code Switching and comprehensible input.
Consequently, it takes a toll on Mixing; Foreign Language Teaching Policy; Interlan- their progress in language acquisition. Handbook of second nitive effect, particularly on children? Earlier research language acquisition. Handbook of child language acquisition. New York: Holt. English as global language. Cambridge: also to a wide variety of cognitive and psychological Cambridge University Press.
Cummins J Schooling and minority language stu- impairments such as low intelligence, mental retarda- dents: a theoretical framework. Los Angeles: California tion, left-handedness, and even schizophrenia. State University. Handbook of child their findings and the work of succeeding researchers language. Oxford: Basil Blackwell Ltd. Handbook of bilingualism. Oxford: biased toward immigrant communities , and unnec- Blackwell Publishing.
Solid on methodological grounds, Grosjean F Life with two languages. Mirror of language. New York: Basic Books, Inc. Contrary to previous studies, bilinguals universal properties of language: The status of subjacency performed better than monolinguals in both verbal in the acquisition of a second language. The study, which was con- — The input hypothesis: issues and implica- changing the face of research on bilingualism forever tions.
London: Longman. This study has Lenneberg E Biological foundations of language. Leopold W — Conclusions McLaughlin B A number of diverse and complex conditions and Early bilingualism and child development. Lisse, The factors lead to life-long bilingualism. These factors — Netherlands: Swets and Zeitlinger. These complexities of Child Language 5, — Binding Theory It particularly focuses on the pos- sible coreference relationships between a pronoun Classes of Nominals and its antecedent the nominal that a nondeictic pronoun depends on for its reference.
For instance, For the purposes of binding theory, nominals are tra- in 1a himself must refer to the same individual as he. Instead, the sentence must mean that 4 some person voted for some other person. Pronouns like himself or ourselves, which must corefer with some other noun phrase in the sentence, The first major division is between pronouns and are called reflexive pronouns or reflexives.
Pronouns nonpronouns. Pronouns are then further subdivided like she, her, and us are called nonreflexive pronouns. This yields three classes for the purposes of binding theory: anaphors, pronominals, In an example like Hei voted for himselfi, we say and nonpronouns. Each class is governed by its own that the reflexive pronoun himself is bound by he, and binding condition.
Reciprocals like each other and one another must Binding Domains also be bound by a local antecedent and are grouped in binding-theoretic terms with reflexives: Traditional definitions of binding domains distinguish local from nonlocal domains. Consider the following 3a Theyi voted for each otheri. The reflexive himself must be bound in its local do- Some major works on binding are Faltz , main, here the subordinate clause Gonzo voted for Wasow , Chomsky , , Reinhart himself.
The only appropriate binder in this domain , Dalrymple , Reinhart and Reuland is Gonzo. The reflexive cannot be bound by the , and Pollard and Sag This is indicated by placing the marker systems. It can, however, be bound by the matrix of the binding relation.
We referred to this relation subject, which lies outside the local domain. One commonly assumed version of command is the tree-configurational relation of Command c-command Reinhart, : Besides a syntactic domain condition, binding in- 9a A c-commands B if and only if A does not volves the requirement that the binding nominal be dominate B and the first branching node in a structurally dominant position.
This required dominating A also dominates B. Therefore, A c-commands B. B does ive, but the possessor Gonzo cannot, because the not c-command A, because the first branching node possessor does not command the reflexive. We have thus far seen that anaphors must be bound Other tree-based definitions of command have within some local domain and that pronominals been proposed; in them, command is relativized to cannot be bound within some local domain. Nonpro- nodes other than the first branching node.
For exam- nouns cannot be bound in any domain, whether local ple, the similar relation of m-command makes refer- or nonlocal: ence to the first maximal projection dominating A. Since this results B dominates A and B does not dominate A. Some in the nonpronoun being bound, the sentences are literature on binding continues to use the term ungrammatical on the indexation indicated. In lexical functional noun is too deeply embedded. Although the pronoun grammar LFG , command is defined on f unctional - and the name corefer, as indicated by the coindexa- structures, which represent predicates and their tion, there is no binding relation, and the sentence is adjuncts and subcategorized grammatical functions.
An anaphor reflexive or reciprocal must be f-structure that contains A also contains B. A pronominal nonreflexive pronoun must not be bound in its local domain. A nonpronoun must not be bound. Following Chomsky , these binding principles In the f-structure in 10b , the f-structure labeled A are often referred to as Principle A, the condition f-commands B: A does not contain B, and the on anaphors; Principle B, the condition on pronom- f-structure X that contains A also contains B.
B does inals; and Principle C, the condition on nonpronouns. Notice that in 10 , B, and C. Otherwise a perfectly grammatical Variation in Binding Domain sentence like 11 would be a Principle B violation because the object reflexive would bind the subject Some theories assume that the local domain for the pronominal. For example, Cases of mutual f-command like the above occur not Chomsky proposed that the local binding just between subjects and objects but among all coar- domain for both anaphors and pronominals is the guments of a given predicate.
Such cases are handled governing category, where a governing category for by an independently motivated relational hierarchy an element is the minimal domain containing a of grammatical functions based on the notion of subject and the head that selects the element. This obliqueness, in which the subject outranks the object, predicts that anaphors and pronominals are in com- which in turn outranks the other arguments.
Early work in HPSG defined a version of Huang subsequently pointed out that the command called o-command on the SUBCAT list, prediction above is incorrect, based on examples like in terms of this obliqueness relation. Chomsky addressed this problem A o-commands X and X contains B. B does not by proposing that the local domain for anaphoric o-command A, on the other hand, because B does and pronominal binding is the smallest domain in not precede A on a SUBCAT list and B does not which the binding constraint in question could o-command anything that contains A.
The o-com- be satisfied. In contrast, the defines binding on the ARG-ST argument struc- local domain for the pronominals in 14b and 15b ture list, a basic representation of argument structure, is the smaller domain constituted by just the NP con- rather than on SUBCAT. To the extent languages indicate that a unified notion of local bind- that ARG-ST encodes thematic relations like agent ing domain for all anaphora is inadequate.
Some logical subject and patient logical object , the a- languages have several anaphors, each with a differ- command version of HPSG binding is related to ent local domain. Thus, a single language can have various nominals: anaphors, each with its own binding domain. Indeed, Norwegian has a third reflexive ham selv that has 20 yet a different binding domain.
Furthermore, many languages have long-distance The referential dependency of the pronoun on the reflexives that must be bound within the same sen- two nominals is represented by linking it to both tence but place no further restrictions on their binding antecedents simultaneously. The possibility for a reflexive to allow long- standard coindexation mechanism is the proposal to distance binding has been claimed to correlate with represent the index for plural noun phrases as a set its morphological form Faltz, ; Pica, : containing an index value for each individual in the morphologically complex reflexives like English him- set Lasnik, In 21 , they refers to two indivi- self or Norwegian seg selv allow only local binding, duals, i and j.
This index value is used to prevent the whereas morphologically simple reflexives like Nor- object him from referring to either individual i or wegian seg allow long-distance binding. Although there are many examples of reflex- ive pronouns that need not be locally bound, there This move necessitates a corresponding adjustment seem to be no comparable examples of long-distance to the binding condition for pronominals, which reciprocals.
Treating reflexives and reciprocals as must now refer to overlap of set-valued indices rather anaphors that must obey the same binding principle than simply to identity of atomic indices. For exam- does not lead us to expect this difference in behavior. Overlap is understood in set- In all of the examples we have examined so far, theoretic terms: a set index A does not overlap with a the relation between the pronoun and its potential set index B if and only if the intersection of A and antecedent has involved either coreference or non- B is empty.
Notice that this treatment of indexation coreference. In more complicated cases involving also blocks readings in which there is overlapping plurals, the possibility of partial overlap of reference reference between plural pronouns: arises. Principle pronoun referring to the speaker in object position. B requires disjoint reference, as discussed above, Lasnik also claimed that in 18 , the group of people whereas Principle A still requires coreference, i.
Example 23b is, by con- predicates. Example 23c illustrates Semantic Approaches to Binding Theory that overlap of reference or intersection is not suffi- Bach and Partee provided a semantic alter- cient for reflexive binding, since the sentence cannot native to syntactic binding theories, couched in have an interpretation in which a group of people Montague semantics.
They argue that functional likes another group of people that includes only application in the semantics yields a sufficiently rich some of the first group. These matical examples that appear to be structurally iden- assumptions can be thought of as analogous to bind- tical to the ungrammatical examples above.
Berman ing constraints. This time they got her a job rational. These languages nonetheless have rules of in the main offce. The HPSG and LFG binding matical and grammatical instances of overlapping re- theories discussed in an earlier part of this article are ference lies in whether the predicate taking the two such theories.
If the predicate is a collective predi- ory, but one based on his semantic case theory rather cate, then overlapping reference is possible, but if it is than on Montague semantics. His binding theory a distributive predicate, then overlapping reference is deals principally with reflexives and shares with the impossible.
This is meant to derive the difference Bach and Partee theory the advantage of ap- between the grammatical 25a and the putatively plying readily to nonconfigurational languages. The function SELF thus The idea is that elect is a collective predicate and reduces the arity of the relation that it applies to.
This the overlapping reference is allowed, but vote for treatment of reflexivization as an arity-reducing func- involves each individual voting separately and is tion is shared by Bach and Partee Their clear that John and Mary together got her a job — the theory centers around the notion of predication, predicate is interpreted collectively. However, many with syntactic predicates distinguished from semantic speakers find 25b just as grammatical as 25a , even predicates.
A semantic predicate is a predicate and its though vote for is presumably equally distributive semantic arguments. A syntactic predicate is a head, for these speakers. Reinhart and Reu- Constraints on the distribution of exempt anaphors land proposed the following two binding conditions: are often claimed to be defined in nonsyntactic terms.
For example, Pollard and Sag argued that 1. A reflexive-marked syntactic predicate is reflexive. A reflexive semantic predicate is reflexive-marked. In this view, A predicate is reflexive-marked if and only if one of exempt anaphors are subject to discourse and prag- its arguments is a reflexive. A predicate is reflexive if matic constraints, as discussed extensively by Kuno and only if two of its arguments are coindexed. The encoding of point reflexive the arguments of the predicate are co- of view in pronominal systems is typically discussed indexed.
Certain formulations of binding theory allow some Since the specifier her is in the right structural posi- occurrences of anaphors to be excluded from the tion to count as a subject, the reflexive must be bound purview of binding constraints. If an account. For example, 28 grammatical Asudeh and Keller, ; Runner the reflexive in the following sentence is an exempt et al.
They noted that the possessor in the noun phrase is not an argument of the head noun and The binding theory of Reinhart and Reuland is concluded that if the possessor is not a semantic argu- similar in treating some anaphors as exempt. Recall ment, then it is not a subject in predication-based that their Principle A requires a reflexive-marked theories. In an HPSG binding theory, the reflexive in syntactic predicate to be reflexive.
Crucially, a syntac- 29 is exempt. In an LFG account, the reflexive is not tic predicate must have a subject. Therefore, although exempt but must be bound in the minimal domain the noun picture in 27 is reflexive-marked, it does containing a subject, which corresponds to the matrix not count as a syntactic predicate, and Reinhart and clause.
Theories like these, in which some anaphors are exempt from binding constraints, contrast with approaches Pragmatic and Blocking Approaches to like that of Chomsky , sketched earlier. Kiparsky noted long-distance reflexive is used for valence reduction. However, in languages principles that explicitly compare structures contain- like English, which lack morphologically simple ing pronouns to ones containing reflexives. He gave reflexives, full reflexives seem to serve a similar func- an overview of the issues involved and offered a hy- tion: brid binding theory that includes blocking principles.
Huang presented an alternative sort of 31a Gonzo behaved himself. His account sented by Sells et al. Such treat- that nonblocking accounts lack, they are by the same ments assume that the passive example of A-move- token seriously challenged when the complementarity ment in 32a and the wh-question example of A-bar breaks down. Reflexives and pronouns must be movement in 32b involve transformations, in which shown to give rise to different meanings or pragmatic the t represents the original position — the trace — of effects in such environments, with the result that the the coindexed element: blocking relation fails to apply since it chooses only between semantically or pragmatically equivalent 32a Gonzoi was accosted ti.
The fact that binding theory applies to these examples might initially appear puzzling since binding theory is Reflexives and Valence Reduction about anaphors, pronominals, and nonpronouns, and Reflexive forms do not always fill a syntactic and traces do not seem to fit into any of these categories.
In many languages, the However, Chomsky gave a featural break- same form can play two roles. It can be a reflexive down of overt noun phrases in terms of the features pronoun with an independent syntactic and semantic [! The passive trace is grouped with in other cases. The serves as an argument long-distance reflexive in trace in wh-movement is grouped with nonpronouns 30a.
However, in 30b it simply marks the verb as using the feature assignment [ a, p]. This classifi- intransitive. Examples 30c and 30d show that the cation enables the statement of locality relations on verb is intransitive, since the verb cannot take a full transformations in terms of binding requirements on local reflexive or a free object. Hornstein revived 30b Johan skyndade sig. However, it faces a number of challenges. In addition, it treats deictic Coreference: Identity and Similarity; Deixis and Anaph- pronouns differently from anaphors and pronom- ora: Pragmatic Approaches; Pronouns; Scope and inals, as lexical items introduced through lexical Binding: Semantic Aspects; X-Bar Theory.
This raises the question of why nondeictic personal pronouns, which are purely grammatical formatives, uniformly have the same morphological Bibliography realization as deictic personal pronouns. Asudeh A Proceedings of the 33 Vilken elev trodde Maria att han fuskade? Chicago Linguistic Society Chicago: Chicago Lin- which student thought M.
Papers from the has left a pronoun in the extraction site. This could parasession on pronouns and anaphora. Chicago: Chi- be explained by treating resumptive pronouns as cago Linguistic Society. Compositionality in formal semantics: selected papers of Barbara Partee. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. Boeckx offered an alterna- Atomism and binding. However, resumptive pronouns do Boeckx C Islands and chains: resumption as deri- not obey standard constraints on movement and do vational residue.
Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Binding theory. Cambridge: Cambridge therefore do not lend straightforward support to the University Press. In a recent overview of Chomsky N Lectures on government and binding. Some concepts and consequences of the theory of government and binding. Knowledge of language: its nature, by the wh-phrase and whose distribution is explained origin, and use.
Long- Lastly, binding is also relevant to movement as a distance reflexives, Syntax and semantics, vol. San diagnostic tool for the extraction site for movement. Diego: Academic Press. Reconstruction, as in 34a , and connectivity, as in Dalrymple M The syntax of anaphoric binding. Faltz L M Similarly, the free rela- al. Anaphora: a cross-linguistic study.
Semantic interpretation in genera- gave an extensive overview of reconstruction and tive grammar. Biosemiotics Keenan E L Explaining language universals. Kiparsky P Head-driven phrase structure pronouns. More than grammar. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Anaphora and semantic interpretation. London: Croom Helm. Inquiry 24, — Kuno S Cognition 89, B1—B Essays on anaphora. Working argument structure and grammatical relations. Stanford, ture Notes, number Wasow T Anaphora in generative grammar. Wilkins W Proceedings of the tions, vol.
San Diego: Academic Press. Biosemiotics S Brier, Copenhagen Business School, Copenhagen, beings transcend the conceptual foundation of the Denmark other natural sciences. In the tradition of Peirce, who founded semiotics as a logic and scientific study of dynamic sign action in Semiotics develops a general theory of all possible human and nonhuman nature, biosemiotics attempts kinds of signs, their modes of signification and infor- to use semiotic concepts to answer questions about mation, whole behavior and properties, but is usually the biologic and evolutionary emergence of meaning, restricted to human communication and culture.
This is its interpretation of what the an attempt to integrate the findings of biology and outer sign vehicle stands for in a motivated context semiotics to form a new view of life and meaning as by relating to a code that is connected to that specific immanent features of the natural world.
Life and functionality. For instance, why a small gazelle, and semiosis are seen as coexisting. The biology of recog- not an elephant, is seen as prey for a cheetah. The in animal courtship and patterns of and within the biosemiotic doctrine accepts nonconsciously inten- body such as plumage for another bird and small- tional signs in humans, nonintentional signs, also pox for a physician as signs, and further patterns between animals as well as between animals and and differences in nature such as the track of a tor- humans, and signs between organs and cells in the nado , it has become the main source for semiotic body and between cells in the body or in nature.
Thus machines do not make codes them- of signs and sign systems, where sign systems are most selves. A sequence of differences such as the base often understood as codes.
Examples of biological pairs in DNA can be information for coding, but is codes are those for the production of proteins from not a code in itself. Biosemiotics argues that codes are the information of the genome, for the reception and triadic sign processes where an interpretant makes the effects of hormones, and neurotransmitters spring to motivated connection between objects and signs mind as obvious biological sign systems.
Marcello representamens. Living systems function based on Barbieri has pointed to the importance of self-constructed codes.
This differentiates them from codes in living systems such as the genetic code, signal physical, chemical, and technological systems com- codes for hormones and between nerve cells, and puters do not make their own codes as they function between nerve cells and muscles, codes for recogni- causally after the codes we have made and installed. He defines codes as rules of correspon- is a part of some self-reproducing system.
A sign is dence between two independent worlds such as the always useful for the system and its value can be Morse code standing for letters in the alphabet. Thus semiosis is a crucial in certain contexts. But information is not a code in part of those processes that make systems living and itself. If you wish to place a tax exempt order please contact us. Add to cart. Sales tax will be calculated at check-out. Free Global Shipping. Now the all-new second edition matches ELL's comprehensiveness and high quality, expanded for a new generation, while being the first encyclopedia to really exploit the multimedia potential of linguistics.
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Section headings section editors : Phonetics John H. Esling, University of Victoria, Canada.
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